INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is a critical period marked by psychological, biological, and social changes. As adolescents navigate this phase, they enhance social skills, personal competence, and independence through interactions with peers (Godor, van der Horst, & Van der Hallen 2023; Graber & Petersen, 1991). Developing cognitive and behavioral strategies to address challenges becomes vital, with the establishment and maintenance of positive peer relationships (Petersen, Kennedy, & Sullivan, 1991; Rich, 2003).

Resilience is the ability of a dynamic system to withstand and recover from significant challenges that threaten its stability and development (Masten, 2018). Adolescents’ self-esteem, self-efficacy and sense of belonging are generally viewed as foundational building blocks for one’s resiliency (Prince-Embury & Saklofske, 2013). These elements can be viewed as either protective factors or risk factors. Protective factors act as buffers against adverse experiences, while risk factors increase the susceptibility to negative outcomes such as social or health problems (Godor, van der Horst, & Van der Hallen, 2023).

Resilience in adolescents is a crucial life skill in navigating the complexities of childhood and adolescence (Prince-Embury & Saklofske, 2014). From early experiences within the family unit (Godor, van der Horst, & Van der Hallen, 2023) to interactions with peers, children encounter a myriad of challenges  that test their emotional and psychological well-being (Graber & Petersen, 1991; Petersen, Kennedy, & Sullivan, 1991; Rich, 2003). Resilience serves as a protective factor, enabling children to effectively cope with adversity, bounce back from setbacks, and continue to thrive despite obstacles (Masten, 2018). Moreover, resilience fosters healthy development by promoting positive adaptive coping behaviors (Van der Hallen, Jongerling, & Godor, 2020; Godor & Van der Hallen, 2022; Godor, van der Horst, & Van der Hallen, 2023)

The promotion of resilience through targeted initiatives can be essential in fostering adolescents’ ability to cope with adversity, bounce back from setbacks, and thrive in the face of challenges. For example, school-based programs play a role in the development of promoting a growth mindset and building positive peer relationships. Equally, community-based initiatives utilizing sports as a context to foster resilience can play a crucial role in promoting holistic development and well-being among individuals, particularly youth (Holt, 2016; Hodge et al., 2017). These initiatives harness the power of sports to instill essential life skills, cultivate positive relationships, and build a sense of belonging and empowerment within communities (Newman, Anderson-Butcher, & Amorose, 2020; Malete et al., 2022). Moreover, community-based sports initiatives provide a space for individuals to build strong social connections, receive support from peers and mentors, and develop emotional regulation skills essential for navigating life’s ups and downs (Prince-Embury & Saklofske, 2013, 2014).

Positive Youth Development

Positive Youth Development (PYD) can be characterized as an answer to the previously dominant paradigm of approaching youth problems from a deficit perspective (Benson, 2006). For example, historically, issues were identified (i.e. truancy or obesity) subsequently, funding was provided for research to be conducted to prevent these issues by the development of appropriate interventions. However, Benson argues that these interventions are only generally moderate in their effects and are not cost-effective (2006). PYD can be seen as being contained within the conceptual framework of positive psychology in the sense that this strength-based approach focuses on increasing personal empowerment (Bundick 2011). Various PYD models, including Lerner’s 5Cs (Lerner et al., 2005), Catalono’s 15 PYD constructs (Catalano et al., 2002), Benson’s 40 developmental assets and social-emotional learning (SEL); (Benson, 2003) generally focus on three major notions: strengths of young people, developmental plasticity, internal developmental assets and external developmental assets (Shek et al., 2019).

Sport-based positive youth development

The concerns for potential risk factors in adolescents as well as, eventual adolescent problem behaviors, have led to an expansion of PYD programs towards sports-based initiatives (Sport-based positive youth development (SBPYD) (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005). SBPYD initiatives are based upon the notion that adolescents already spend a significant amount of time in “structured leisure activities” (Larson, 2000, p. 171) and that these activities are well-suited for PYD in that they contain elements of self-initiative and hold a high potential for self-development.

Additionally, participation in sports provides a unique opportunity for individuals to develop resilience through the experience of adversity. Sport participation offers numerous chances to encounter various stressors, such as performance failures, injuries, and team demands, which challenge their ability to cope and adapt (Mellalieu et al., 2009; Galli & Gonzalez, 2015). These adversities can foster personal growth and positive adaptation, as they opportune a possibility to learn to rebound from setbacks and cultivate essential coping strategies (Galli & Vealey, 2008; Tamminen, Holt, & Neely, 2013). The dynamic nature of the sporting environment, characterized by both expected and unexpected challenges, serves as a fertile ground for building resilience, ultimately enhancing athletes’ overall psychological well-being and performance (Galli & Gonzalez, 2015).

The benefits of these structured activities in terms of affective context, supporting youth development, and providing opportunities for positive growth have been well demonstrated (Larson, 2000; Kahne et al., 2001; Bundick, 2011; Fredricks & Simpkins, 2012). Specifically, SBPYD has been shown to increase leadership skills, self-concept, as well as, academic performance (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005; Turnnidge, Côté, & Hancock,, 2014; Turnnidge & Côté, 2018).

Equally, participation in SBPYD has been shown to increase life satisfaction in youths (Gilman, 2001). It must be kept in mind that youth sport does not unquestionably lead to positive personal development. Hodge et al. (2017) states that the health and welfare of youth can increase only when they are taught these life skills in an “intentional and systematic” fashion (p. 36). Additionally, it is not just a well-developed program that could ensure positive development, but Newman, Anderson-Butcher, & Amorose (2020) have clearly demonstrated that  “influence of key adult figures on youth life skill and transfer of learning outcomes within the context community sport-based PYD” form essential elements that greatly predict “youth life skill and transfer of learning outcomes” (p. 276). These notions have also been asserted by McDonough et al. (2013) who specifically links program staff as “important for optimizing outcomes” (p. 433).

Resiliency Theory

Many Positive Youth Development (PYD) programs aim to create protective factors in adolescents, aligning with the development of resilience, which Masten (2018) defines as the capacity to successfully face challenges without threatening positive development. Prince-Embury & Saklofske (2013, 2014) propose a model of resilience comprising three central elements: Sense of Mastery (optimism, self-efficacy, adaptation), Sense of Relatedness (comfort, trust, tolerance, support), and Emotional Reactivity (sensitivity, recovery, impairment). Both Sense of Mastery and Sense of Relatedness are considered characteristics that can reduce the chances of life experiences posing a threat to positive development. These elements are generally called “protective factors.” Conversely, emotional reactivity is generally considered a threat to one’s positive development or a “risk factor.”

In the context of sports, resilience theory encompasses both individual traits and contextual factors that facilitate positive adaptation in the face of adversity (Galli & Gonzalez, 2015). Resiliency theory, with its key elements of sense of belonging, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, is fundamentally integrated into Sport-Based Positive Youth Development (SBPYD) programming. SBPYD initiatives are designed to foster these resilience components, aiming to address protective factors (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005). Sense of belonging is cultivated through sports activities that promote positive peer relationships and a supportive team environment (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005). Self-efficacy is developed as participants engage in challenging activities and set personal goals, enhancing their belief in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1978, 1997). Self-esteem is bolstered through positive reinforcement, skill mastery, and goal achievement (Martín-Albo et al., 2007; Ouyang et al., 2020). By incorporating these elements, SBPYD programs aim to create protective factors that enhance adolescents’ resilience (Rak & Patterson, 1996; Walsh et al., 2020). This aligns with Prince-Embury & Saklofske’s (2013) model of resilience, emphasizing Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional Reactivity. Thus, resiliency theory underpins SBPYD program development, guiding the creation of interventions that build crucial psychological resources.

Protective and Risk factors

Reviewing current literature, Prince-Embury & Saklofske (2013) have identified three commonly researched categories of protective factors that have: personal characteristics, the direct family environment, and the environment outside one’s family. Equally, the existence of these characteristics decreases the chances that life experiences will negatively affect one’s development. In other words, protective factors are characteristics that can act as a buffer towards negative life experiences (Rak & Patterson, 1996; Walsh et al., 2020). Especially for SBPYD, Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin (2005) report that sports activities can aid in the development of protective factors thus leading to higher levels of positive peer relationships and lower levels of school dropout. Conversely, risk factors are the existence of characteristics that can increase the chances that life experiences will negatively affect one’s development. The presence of these risk factors can lead to negative outcomes in terms of social or health problems such as difficulty establishing a career or finding stable employment (Forrest-Bank et al., 2015). Zolkoski & Bullock (2012) report higher levels of divorce rate and teenage pregnancy as potential negative effects of the presence of risk factors.

Self-efficacy

Bandura (1978, 1997) describes self-efficacy or “efficacy expectations” as “the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes” (p. 193) and is at the heart of all human functioning (Bandura, 1978, 1997). Often described as “task-specific self-confidence” (Artino Jr., 2012. p. 76), self-efficacy is the confidence that complements task specific knowledge and skills. This combination and interaction of these elements is defined by Bandura as reciprocal causation (1978, 1997). The performance of one element is partially reliant on the performance/existence of the other.

Self-efficacy as a protective factor

Having confidence in one’s ability to perform a task can lead to a positive development of skills. For example, higher levels of self-efficacy leads to better self-regulation of one’s learning process (Lee et al., 2020). Additionally, Usher & Pajares (2008) report that self-efficacy is related to students’ decision to stay in school. One’s positive perception of their own self-efficacy in life skills has been related to higher levels of reported resiliency (Sagone et al., 2020). Sagone (2020) further asserts that higher levels of self-efficacy act as a buffer and supports one’s ability to face hardships and setbacks in life . Specifically in a sports setting, higher levels of self-efficacy generally lead to higher levels of sport participation as well as, the persistence in that sport (Birkimer et al., 1996; Annesi & Mareno, 2015; Ouyang et al., 2020).

Self-Esteem

Rosenberg (1979), in his seminal work “Society and the Adolescent Self-Image” describes self-esteem as an attitude towards an object: the self. He notes that this concept is often viewed as a mysterious and diffuse object, however, it is built upon “facts, opinions, and values with regard to the self” (Rosenberg, 1979, p. 5). While this attitude is similar to attitudes towards other objects, it differs in the sense that it is reflective in that the object holding this attitude is also the subject of that attitude. Moreover according to Rosenberg (1979), this attitude remains completely unique in three aspects: immediate experience; only the subject can truly know with certainty if they are experiencing these facts, opinions, and values about themselves, unexpressed thoughts; these facts, opinions, and values about ourselves remain completely inaccessible to anyone else, and unique perspective; these facts, opinions, and values about ourselves are perceptually different than facts, opinions, and values about outside objects. To illustrate this latter point, Rosenberg asserts that “most people hearing their voices played back on a recorder for the first time feel that they sound strange” (1979, p.10). Additionally, Martín-Albo et al. (2007) note that self-esteem is a mechanism to assess one’s self-concept or an appraisal of one’s self-image utilizing received feedback from both individuals as well as, stemming from social interactions.

Self-Esteem as a protective factor

Self-esteem serves as a crucial protective factor in sport-based positive youth development (PYD) programs, fostering resilience and personal growth through adversity. High levels of self-esteem have been linked to several positive outcomes such as healthy social relationships, positive perceptions by peers, persistence in the face of failure, and improved coping and self-regulation skills (Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robins, 2003). These elements form the foundation for resilience (Prince-Embury 2008; Prince-Embury & Saklofske, 2013, 2014). Ouyang et al. (2020) assert that self-esteem can offset the negative effects of life events by promoting adolescents’ positive adaptation to challenges, thus acting as a psychological buffer. Furthermore, Mann (2004) highlights the importance of self-esteem as a protective factor, particularly in its contribution to health and quality of life when individuals face stress or physical disease.

In addition to its psychological benefits, higher levels of self-esteem have been linked to increased sports participation (Birkimer et al., 1996; Ouyang et al., 2020). Bowker (2006) reports a positive correlation between self-esteem and sports participation among young adolescents. Sport-based PYD programs leverage this connection by creating environments that nurture self-esteem through skill development, goal achievement, and positive peer interactions. As youth face and overcome obstacles in their sporting activities, they develop a sense of mastery and competence, further enhancing their self-esteem. This increased self-esteem contributes not only to their overall health and quality of life but also to their ability to navigate adversity both on and off the field.

Sense of belonging

The sense of belonging can be characterized by a deep emotional connection, strong identification, and allegiance to a particular social setting, cultivating sentiments of inclusion and approval (Anant, 1967). Moreover, a sense of belonging is an inherent human emotion demonstrating connectedness to a social, spatial, cultural, group or community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sargent et al., 2002; Esters, Godor, & Van Der Hallen, 2023).  Individuals can gain a sense of security through experiencing a sense of belongingness which has been linked to positive mental health (Anant, 1967).  The notion of belongingness has been posited as a fundamental human necessity driving behaviors aimed at establishing and perpetuating meaningful, enduring, and mutually beneficial relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).  Valued involvement denotes the perception of oneself as valued, accepted, and indispensable within one’s surroundings, while fit pertains to the sense of alignment between one’s traits and the characteristics of the environment (Oyanedel & Paez, 2021).

Sense of belonging as a protective factor

Sense of belonging has been associated with numerous benefits across various aspects of life. Research has shown that individuals who report a sense of belonging to groups and networks tend to exhibit positive psychological functioning, including higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction (Allen & Bowles, 2012). Additionally, Allen & Bowles (2012) assert belongingness has been found to protect against psychopathology and stress. Equally, Baumeister & Leary (1995) demonstrate that strong sense of belonging offers numerous benefits across emotional, psychological, and physical well-being through enhancing emotional stability, happiness, and overall well-being, while also promoting psychological health and resilience in coping with stress. Furthermore, a sense of belonging fosters resilience (Walton & Cohen, 2011), enabling individuals to navigate challenges more effectively by providing a support system during difficult times. Ultimately,  according to Walton & Cohen (2011) a strong sense of belonging contributes to higher self-esteem, a sense of identity, and an overall feeling of being valued and accepted by others, enriching one’s well-being and quality of life.

Research Question

This article investigates the effectiveness of a Sport-Based Positive Youth Development (SBPYD) program in enhancing resilience among inner-city adolescents. The objectives are threefold: first, to assess the program’s impact on key resilience factors, specifically self-esteem, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging; second, to examine the extent to which structured sports activities, combined with academic support and individual coaching, can foster these psychological constructs; and third, to provide empirical evidence supporting the use of SBPYD programs as a tool for positive youth development.

This research is important because it addresses a gap in the literature by examining a holistic SBPYD approach that integrates physical activity with academic and personal development components, offering a comprehensive strategy for fostering resilience. Furthermore, it contributes to the understanding of how SBPYD programs can be tailored to meet the specific needs of inner-city adolescents, a population often facing significant challenges. To meet these objectives, the study employs a pre- and post-intervention design, utilizing validated scales such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Sense of Belonging Scale, and self-efficacy statements from the Sense of Mastery Scale to measure changes in the constructs of interest.

Main research question: To what extent does participation in a structured, 20-week Sport-Based Positive Youth Development (SBPYD) program influence the resilience capacity of inner-city adolescents facing academic or socio-emotional challenges, as evidenced by measurable changes in self-esteem, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging?

To address this overarching question, the following sub-research questions were investigated:

• Sub-Research Question 1: Does participation in a 20-week SBPYD program lead to changes in adolescents’ self-esteem?
• Sub-Research Question 2: Does participation in a 20-week SBPYD program influence adolescents’ self-efficacy?
• Sub-Research Question 3: Is there a difference in adolescents’ sense of belonging between the SBPYD intervention context and their school environment?